Day when the darkness came

In August 1959, the NASA satellite Explorer 6 was launched. Its purpose was to study Earth’s magnetosphere and follow up on the research the Van Allen radiation belts which was discovered by previous satellite from the programme - Explorer 1. Explorer 6 was the first satellite that captured a crude picture of Earth’s surface, starting a revolution in how we see and percieve the Earth.

In August 2019, day became night in São Paolo. A dark cloud of smog covered the city, turning the skies dark, and the media all over the world started reporting on the event. The Amazon was burning, and cloud of smoke from the fires was carried for thousands of kilometers by a weather front. !Add one more sentence here.

While people in São Paolo were wondering about the cause of smoke, a satellite based on the technology that emerged 60 years ago was taking pictures of the Earth, 800 kilometers above their heads. Cameras on the Suomi NPP satellite have infrared sensors with which it can detect fires. It is only one of the satellites built for this purpose - there are almost 800 satellites [UCS] orbiting the Earth that rely on the technology that emerged 60 years ago to study Earth’s surface. They are called Earth Observation satellites, and many of them have sensors that can be used to detect fires. This is particularly the case of high resolution satellites AQUA, TERRA, and SUOMI NPP.

Detecting fires from space

When we take an photo with a regular camera, such as the one on our phone, its sensor captures information within the visible spectrum of light reflected from photographed objects. Generally, the information is captured in the form of red/green/blue band color combinations. In case of earth observation satellites, their sensors can capture dozens, or sometimes hundreds of different bands, each capturing one specific wavelength range of the electromagnetic spectra. When a fire burns, its energy is radiated in infrared part of the spectrum. Therefore, using a similar approach in which we can pick up heat from objects using a thermal camera, we can register fires on Earth’s surface by using a specific band of a Earth Observation satellites.

Data that comes from satellite sensors is translated into raster imagery - a term used when referring to pictures taken by satellites. Just as any other digital picture, satellite imagery is made from pixels (pixel - picture element) that have a certain size. Since we are dealing with imagery of Earth’s surface, the size of pixels corresponds to the specific ground surface area. This means that if the resolution of satellite imagery is 1 kilometer, a single pixel will cover a space that’s rougly 1x1km. If there is a strong signal in the infrared part of the spectrum that has fire signature, this pixel will be labeled as active fire area.

The Suomi NPP satellite carries a sensor named Visible Infrared Imaging Radiometer Suite, or VIIRS, thas has spatial resolution of 375 meters. VIIRS active fire data is publicly available via the NASA Earthdata portal. What this data tell us is whether there is active fire in the area covered by the pixel, without us knowing more about the area or the intensity of the fire. This is important to keep in mind - if we see a pixel as burning, it does not necessarily mean that the entire area is on fire. Although this is the drawback of using this dataset, its spatial and temporal resolution can give us very valuable insight.

Suomi NPP satellite has a polar orbit, meaning that it orbits from north to south pole, while the Earth rotates underneath them. This excellent visualization by Nadieh Bremer shows Planet Labs satellites orbiting the Earth in a polar orbit. Suomi NPP observes the Earth’s surface twice every day - once in day and once at night, meaning that its temporal resolution is 24 hours. In case of this analysis, only pixels with confidence value of 100 from day part of the orbit were used. By using data from the VIIRS sensor, we can see how many fires are there, and where they are.

Are fires good or bad?

It depends… Ecosystem fires can have different consequences, depending on where they are, and for how long they burn. Areas where fires occur naturally, and often in periodical events, have vegetation that is more adapted to these conditions. Here fire plays a role in removing the dead vegetation, triggering the maturation and seeding of some species (pyriscence), or it has a key role in vegetation successions. Controlled burning can also be benificial for the management of some ecosystems.

However, in ecosystems where fire is a foreign element, such as the Amazon rainforest, fires have lasting and often long term consequences for the vegetation, wildlife, and soil. Add stuff from here

Although there is evidence of some fires in the paleoecology of the Amazon rainforest, this comes from early human settlers that used fire to clear the undergrowth in order to set up agriculture plantations[bush]. In fact, one of the best signs of pre-European settlers of the Amazon rainforest interior is the occurence of dark terra preta soils, that are a product of slash-and-char agriculture. However, this is very different agriculture from what we see today in the region, with large swaths of land completely cleared of trees, and often a single species of crop being planted in those areas.

However, what has been happening in these ecosystems during the last millenia is not what has been happening during the last few decades. Unprecedented amounts of human pressure, exhibited in building infrastructure, expanding agriculture and farming, converting habitats, and not even mentioning the direct and indirect effects of changing climate, has painted a new picture of global ecosystem dynamics, and with that a different picture of global fire dynamics. A fire in the Amazon rainforest is therefore not a natural occurence, and it has a devastating effect on the local flora and fauna, and on the environment.

Where were the fires?

The Amazon biome (delineated with the black line in the map below) engulfs an area of 6.7 million km2, making it two times larger than the country of India. Within the wider Amazon region, and in the rainforest, lie XX registered protected areas of various categories, and also 2708 areas that SOURCE lists as indigenous territories. Out of 6.7, protected areas cover XX km², and indigenous areas cover XX km², with XX km² of overlap between the two. The largest part of the Amazon biome lies in Brazil, with ~60% cover (CHECK!).

During the month of August 2019, 74% of all fires detected within the Amazon basin by VIIRS were inside forested regions. Many forests in the Amazon are degraded, and these are oftne rich rainforests in areas that already experienced human impact. Fires are sometimes used here as a slash-and-burn (LINK) management tool in already degraded areas. On the forest’s edge, fires are often ignited in order to make space for new agriculture or for new pastures.

Green areas in the map above show the extent of Intact Forest Landscapes (IFLs)[potapov]. Out of all active fire pixels detected inside of the Amazon biome region, 10% were inside IFLs. Intact Forest Landscapes are the last frontier of Earths wilderness, and intact forests in the Amazon region occupy the largest area, and make up arguably the most important ecosystems on Earth. On a global perspective, the importance of the Amazon rainforest is particularly evident when compared with the extent of other Intact Forest Landscapes.

Some of the highest frequencies of fires were recorded in XX region and XX region. Besides the fires in the Amazon region, there was a high frequency of fires detected in XX forest that are located in rich forests of Bolivia and Brazil, but outside of the Amazon biome region.

Most of other fires detected outside of the Amazon region were also outside of forested areas. (What fires are these?)

Timing of fires

The current fires in the Amazon are not wildfires. They are mostly set illegally by people who are clearing the forest to raise cattle and crops.

People clear the land by cutting down the trees during the rainy season, letting the trees dry out and burning them during the dry season. Fully clearing the thick forest for agricultural use can take several years of cutting and burning. Queimadas

Large increase in the fire frequency occurred around the 10th of August. Local farmers and landgrabbers organized a “fire day”, with the purpose of sending a message (to whom?). Large cluster of fires waws detected around Novo Progresso area (Jamanxim area - see PA8 in the map) that leads to Itaituba port.

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Queimadas in Brazil. Day of fire (10th of August) key article

Were August fires an isolated event?

Suomi NPP satellite was launched in October 2011, and VIIRS active fire data data is available from 2012. Since 2012, VIIRS data shows that months with the highest frequency of fires in the Amazon region are usually August and September, during the peak of the dry season. The highest frequency of fires until now was recorded in the month of September 2017, with 18 700 fire events detected in total (VIIRS fire events with 100% confidence). For reference, this is almost twice as many fires as the previous recod months during previous years. The month August 2019 broke this record with 19 100 fires detected. This amount of fires is almost as large as the number of fires during the entire 2018, when 21 000 fires were detected in total.

Bars in the barchart below are colored according to the location of fires. Protected areas were taken from the WDPA database, excluding the indigenous areas, while the indigenous territories were taken from landmark project. Fires that were inside of the Amazon biome region, but outside of protected areas or indigenous territories, are shown in grey.

Compared to all previous months for which VIIRS data is available, August 2019 had the highest frequency of fires both within indigenous territories and within protected areas. There were 1473 pixels in indigenous territories with active fires detected during August 2019. Previous record was from September 2017, when 1406 active fire pixels were detected. Even larger difference was in protected areas. Number of fires detected in August 2019 was 3176 - twice as much as the previous record of 1556 fires during August 2017.

Although the size of area that the indigenous territories in the amazon is XX % of the entire region, and protected areas cover XX %, the number of recorded fires is much smaller in these regions. That indicates, that in addition to the remoteness of these areas, they are also effective in reduction of fires. However, the frequency has been increasing…

Understanding whether this unusally high number is an anomaly, or a syptom of the state of the environment, requires more in-depth analyses besides only the satellite data. However, let’s see how far .

Fires on indigenous territories and protected areas

Add protected areas

Brazil has one of the largest populations of indigenous people and uncontacted tribes in the world (CITE!). Marshal Cândido Rondon was one of the first that supported the rights of indigenous people, and he put pressure on the governmenet of Brazil to further the protection of indigenous people and prevent their genocide. The Indian Protection Service (Serviço de Proteção aos Índios - SPI) was founded in 1910, and Rondon was its first president. The importance of his work is also captured by the Brazilian state of Rondonia, which bears his name. Ironically, the state of Rondonia experienced enormous amounts of environmental destruction during the recent decades. After a period of turmoil, the SPI was eventually replace by the National Indian Foundation (Fundação Nacional do Índio - FUNAI), that was taking care of indigenous rights.

The new government of Brazil has put up a hard stance towards the indigenous people and their rights. “The Brazilian cavalry was very incompetent. Competent, yes, was the American cavalry that decimated its Indians in the past and nowadays does not have this problem in their country.” This was said by the current president of Brazil on (CHECK date!). On the first day of his presidency, Jair Bolsonaro issued a decree where certifying indigenous territories as protected areas was transferred from FUNAI to the Ministry of Agriculture. A new president of FUNAI was also elected, who supports further development of agribusiness in the Amazon. Former FUNAI president described the move as “the death” of FUNAI. The protection of rainforest and the protection of the indigenous rights is seen as an obstacle for the development of Brazil. However, the price of this type of development is grave, and it cannot be only measured by human suffering and the destruction of nature, but by the desctruction of the most unique areas in the world.

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“If I become president, there won’t be one square centimeter of land designated for indigenous reservations,” he said at a 2017 campaign stop in the farm state of Mato Grosso.

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Bolsonaro won in (large parts of amazon state - CHECK!) Rondonia by a wide margin. Rondonia was named after Candido Rondon, who fought for the rights for indigenous people. The economy of Rondonia is (DESCRIBE), and poverty has an important part in driving the destruction of habitat.

Indigenous territory that had the largest number of detected fires by far was Marãiwatsédé region where Xavante group of indigenous people lives. This area had 127 fires detected, compared to the territory with second highest number of fires in August in Kayapó area, that had 77 fires, however on the area 20 times larger than Marãiwatsédé region. Incidentally, one of the few unasphalted sections of the road BR-158 passes straight through the Marãiwatsédé territory. There were reports of construction effort in this area, however it is difficult to establish the link between the two without ground information. Spatial patterns of other areas with frequent fires are also close to the main roads that go through the Amazon region. There three roads that can take you from the southern regions to the north Amazon areas. BR-158, BR-163, BR-364. There’s also one road that goes east-west. These roads are used for transportation of soy by many trucks. There are also plans for railroad. (Should I mark the main ports) #### Top 10 areas burned plot

NOTE: TRASE shows that Querencia has one of the highest amounts of Soy export.

human rights obstructions

Genetic uniqueness of Xavante (nature)

Meanwhile, most fires were recorded in protected areas close to Kayapo areas, and around the BR-163 route to the Santarem port.

• Most burned is Reserva Extrativista Chico Mendes Protected Area. Edit: nope, it’s fifth
• Most one actually is Triunfo Do Xingu check dis

NatGeo brazil article

Agribusiness enchroachment

One of the largest economic commodities in Brazil is soya. Large part of Brazil’s export consists out of soya export. Large parts of soya goes to China. Large economic growth in China in last 15 years has lead to a richer middle class, that consumes a better menu. The soya is used as feed for pork. (Expand). Although the majority of the trade goes through the largest ports on the Amazon coast, export through large ports in the Amazon region has been increasing in last few years. Investment in infrastructure needed for agricultural commodites to reach these ports would bring the costs down.

Large demand for soya, particularly from China, drives the supply … According to the export data from ABIOVE(LINK), around 75% of the total export of soya is designated to China, which increased to a whopping 82% in 2018. The amount of export has also increased during the recent years. link with the paving&cost quote below Mention beef supply etc

Although the direct link between soya plantations and deforestation of the Amazon rainforest might be more difficult to establish, the growth of infrastructure related with the trade of agricultural commodites seems to be a driver of fires/deforestation.

Development of major road in the Amazon region, BR-163, has been linked with large lobbies that have agribusiness interests.

These ports are closer. Paving the roads would bring down the transport costs of commodities such as soy - reduced travel times, traffic congestion, and spillage from the trucks would bring the costs down. However, the development of roads to the northern Amazon ports would bring environmental desctruction after it. Around 80% of the deforestation in the Amazon occurs XX kilometers from roads, and also development of agricultural land and cattle ranches are linked with the development of roads.

While the Amazon shortcut reduced travel time from fields to ports, the cost of moving crops to northern ports is equivalent to transportation expenses to southern terminals, partly because of unpaved roads, Ferreira said.

“Brazil’s northern ports are allowing the country to export big volumes of grain without the historical loading delays or vessel queues,” said Sergio Mendes, general director at the grain-export group Anec. from bloomberg article

link with dis lnk

With little industry, joblessness is rampant and many people are forced to find their housing in slums. What are the alternatives for the locals in the Brazilian Amazon?

Impact of deforestation

After a period of decrease in deforestation, supply chains blabla.

The issue of fires in the Amazon cannot be looked at without the context of deforestation. Cutting trees in the Amazon is now mostly done to establish new crop plantations or animal farms. In this case, deforestation of the Amazon can directly and indirectly be a driver of fires.

The Amazon is a tropical rain forest, which means that the amount of rain here is much higher than in a regular forest. However, what is even more important, most of the rain in the Amazon rainforest created by the forest itself. When we say that plants transpirate, that means that they take water with their roots, and they release is through the leaves as water vapour. There is a lot of water in the Amazon basin that plants can take with their roots, and there are many plants can transpire all that water into the air. All that water vapour released through leaves condenses above in the form of clouds.

When a forest that creates its own rain is cut and cleared, with every tree that is removed, the forest will create less rain for itself. Deforestation and degradation of forests in this way produces drier and warmer conditions, making more suitable conditions for draughts and fires. Eventually, so much of it can be removed that there are not enough trees creating clouds from the river that flows below, and then it becomes a matter of time when a rainforest becomes a forest or a savannah. This is called a tipping point - a point where a system can rapidly go from one state to another. It has been calculated that the Amazon rainforest may reach this tipping point where it would flip to a non-forest ecosystem at 20-25% deforestation.

Show distance from deforested areas, and fires in deforested areas, and fires in recently deforested areas.

• Calculate distance layer from GFW data
• Extract deforested/IFL/none raster to viirs august fires data
• What about monthly change in values? Does the distance to deforested areas decrease over the years? Is it smaller during august?

The amount of deforestation in the Amazon Global forest watch processes data from multiple years of deforestation. If fires were recorded in deforested areas, most of them would occur in recently deforested areas. Significantly large number of fires are in areas deforested mostly during previous 3-4 years. This information is symptomatic, but having a proper insight into the process behind it is beyond the scope of this piece.

Where to go from here

The story of fires in the Amazon is one of the most common stories of humankind. If you want to know what is happening in the Amazon, you can just watch Avatar. In Avatar, the amazin world of Pandora has been invaded by humans, that came there from Earth after it was depleted from its resources. The N’avi, indigenous inhabitants of Pandora, are … Avatar tells a story of struggle between value systems, just as many stires told before it (such as?).

The story of the environmental destruction in the Amazon has been often told from a particular value system.

Many perspectives on the issues on the destruction of the Amazon have been written with the focus on carbon emissions. Even though this is an imporant point, that has a stronhold in my international agreements and regulations, it is a point that comes from an antropocentric stand - changes in the Amazon will contribute to the climate change problem that the humanity is facing. Addressing these issues properly needs changing the status quo of the systems that we have put in place, and the pace of those changes usually spans over multiple generations of humans. Its uniqueness, diversity of species, number of undiscovered life forms, its beauty and its mystery, all of those should be values that are put before the short term economical gain which will cause long term losses orders of magnutide larger.

Most of the current cultures do not really have a way in which they can value the Amazon. Instead, we have to resort to concepts such as ecosystem services, or assign economic value. We do use the concept of intrinsic value, but it’s a rare argument that people use. Whether the Amazon has burned much more than usual during August 2019 or not may not matter that much. What matters is what we will learn from this, and how will we continue treating our environment, and each others. The Amazon rainforest, and the Amazon river basin contain the largest diversity of species on Earth, and from what we know now, in the Universe. Its protection should be one of the highest priorities of humanity.

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